The scope of this page is limited to accent modification services provided to adults. The main focus of this content is related to nonnative accents.
Accents (regional, foreign, or nonnative) are not a communication disorder. Accents are a natural part of spoken language, and every person has an accent. Accents and dialects are intimately tied to identity and community. Language plays an important role in socialization and sharing cultural information, and different language variations are invaluable in strengthening and communicating different cultural identities. As Lippi-Green states in English with an Accent (2012):
We exploit linguistic variation available to us in order to send a complex series of messages about ourselves and the way we position ourselves in the world. We perceive variation in the speech of others and we use it to structure our knowledge about that person” (pp. 38-39).
The goal of accent modification is not to eliminate the existence of nonmainstream dialects and accents, nor is it to disconnect the individual from their community and identity associated with a particular language variation.
Accent modification is an elective service sought by individuals who want to change or modify their speech. Accents are systematic variations in the execution of speech characterized by differences in phonological and/or prosodic features that are perceived as different from any native, standard, regional, or dialectal form of speech (Valles, 2015). Accents are marked by variations in speech sound production, prosody, rate, and fluency (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996). These linguistic variations may affect intelligibility; however, one can have a noticeable accent and still be clearly intelligible.
Regional accents are common among individuals from different geographic areas; for example, individuals from New York often sound different than individuals from South Carolina. Although this type of accent is not the main focus of this page, some assessment and pronunciation strategies may be applicable to those with regional accents.
Nonnative accents are sometimes heard in nonnative individuals who learn English as a second language (L2). These accents occur because the phonology/sound system and prosody of their first language (L1) influence pronunciation when speaking a new language. Groups of learners from the same L1 background have similar accents because they share L1 phonology. However, in postcolonial countries, the language interaction might operate differently. The origin of nonnative accents could also be a function of diglossia and/or other sociolinguistic phenomena.
Researchers from the English as a Second Language [1] field describe three broad dimensions of an accent that contribute to the effectiveness of communicative exchanges involving English Learners: accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility (Derwing & Munro, 2009). However, communicative exchanges are impacted by the listener as well as the speaker. Thus, these measures are influenced by listener bias (Lindemann, 2002; Rubin, 1992; Rubin & Smith, 1990).
[1] The current preferred terminology, according to the U.S. Department of Education, is “English Learner.”
Linguistic bias plays a role in one’s motivation to pursue accent modification services. Although no accent is inherently “better” than another, not all accents are treated the same, and this lends power to certain accents over others (Fuertes et al., 2012). Such biases may lead to psychosocial pressure on an individual to modify speech patterns.
Terminology used to describe service provision continues to evolve and remains under debate. The terms “accent reduction” and “accent elimination” are not preferred and are inaccurate, because every speaker has an accent, even if an accent is changed or modified. Those terms have also been criticized for framing an accent as something that should be eliminated and as an impediment to clear communication when, in fact, accentedness does not necessarily determine intelligibility (Derwing & Munro, 1997).
The term accent modification is commonly used in the literature and is the term used in this page. However, terminology is evolving, and other terms have been suggested such as intelligibility enhancement (Blake et al., 2019), accent addition, accent coaching, accent enhancement, and pronunciation training/instruction (McKinney, 2019).
Accents are not a communication disorder, and everyone has an accent. Accentedness, as stated above, is the degree of an accent as compared to the speech patterns of a listener’s community. This is based on a listener’s perception and may therefore be subject to bias. Accents are a natural part of spoken languages. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) may provide accent modification as an elective service, but they do not approach this service as remediation of a disorder.
Accents often serve as a source of pride for individuals and frequently reflect the social, cultural, ethnic, and geographic background of a person. However, in some circumstances, an accent or listener attitudes about an accent may influence the ease of spontaneous communication. Some issues that may arise and that may warrant individuals to seek elective SLP services are
These communication challenges may negatively affect professional and educational advancement, self-esteem, social interactions, and everyday life activities (Brady et al., 2016; Carlson & McHenry, 2006; Fuertes et al., 2012). Therefore, an individual may choose to seek elective accent modification services from an SLP or other service provider. Individuals may seek accent modification services to
Accent modification services can be provided by several different professions (e.g., an SLP or an English as a Second Language instructor). Services are often provided by SLPs due to their high-level training in articulation, phonology, prosody, voice, and social aspects of communication. SLPs provide accent modification as an elective clinical service. ASHA’s Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology includes such elective services as part of an SLP’s practice domains. SLPs providing elective services are subject to the same ethical standards as other areas of practice and should confirm licensure requirements in their state for both in-person services and telepractice. SLPs working in the area of accent modification typically possess the following knowledge and skills:
SLPs often play a central role in the assessment and pronunciation training of individuals seeking accent modification services. The professional roles and activities in speech-language pathology include clinical/educational services (assessment, planning, and pronunciation training); advocacy; and education, administration, and research. See ASHA’s Scope of Practice in Speech-Language Pathology (ASHA, 2016).
Appropriate roles for SLPs include, but are not limited to,
As indicated in the ASHA Code of Ethics, SLPs “shall engage in only those aspects of the professions that are within the scope of their professional practice and competence, considering their certification status, education, training, and experience” (ASHA, 2023, Principle II, Rule A). SLPs who serve this population should be appropriately trained to do so.
Assessment for individuals seeking accent modification services is different from an assessment of someone with a communication disorder. The goal is to understand the impact of an individual’s speech pattern on their intelligibility and functionality rather than to diagnose a disorder. SLPs provide accent modification as an elective service and recognize that this service is not remediation of a disorder. SLPs use assessments to evaluate accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility as well as to establish goals and objectives that meet the needs of the individual (Behrman & Akhund, 2013; Celce-Murcia et al., 1996; McKinney, 2019; Schmidt, 1997; Sikorski, 2005). These dimensions of an accent can be assessed in various ways, including
It is important that the clinician conducts a thorough case history to determine the individual’s language history. A language history includes questions about
For further information, please see the International Association for Impact Assessment website.
Learner variables should be considered early on as they may also serve to guide the assessment protocol. Variables include (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996; McKinney, 2019; Moyer, 1999)
Along with a thorough case history, three main areas need to be considered when evaluating an individual who is seeking accent modification services: segmentals, suprasegmentals, and language (e.g., syntax, morphology, and pragmatics).
Segmentals are the individual sounds of a language, including consonants and vowels. Every language has a unique set of vowels and consonants and unique ways in which these sounds can be combined or used in words. An articulation assessment will survey the production of consonants, vowels, diphthongs, and consonant clusters in single words, in sentences, and in spontaneous speech.
Awareness of a language’s speech sound system—and, in particular, allophonic variations—is important when assessing segmental features of a language. If a sound in the target language is not part of the phonemic inventory of the individual’s first language (L1), then the individual may replace it with an allophone—a variation of a phoneme that does not change the meaning of a word (e.g., the tap in “butter” being replaced with an aspirated /t/; Behrman, 2014). Auditory discrimination tests are often included in an assessment protocol to determine whether the individual is able to perceive the difference among minimal pairs (i.e., “mat” and “map”).
Clinicians should educate themselves on the phonetic inventory and phonological rules of the individual’s native language (see ASHA’s resource on phonemic inventories). Comparing and contrasting the L1 and English sound systems helps the clinician better understand why some consonants, vowels, and syllable shapes may be difficult for the individual to produce.
Suprasegmentals are the prosodic features of speech that include stress, intonation, pitch, timing, and loudness (Behrman, 2014; Celce-Murcia et al., 1996; Sikorski, 2005). Modifications in the suprasegmental features of a language may make a significant impact on speaker intelligibility (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996; Hahn, 2004; Sikorski, 2005; Trofimovich & Baker, 2006). The following list offers a summary of the various suprasegmental features that are assessed and a brief description of each (Bernthal & Bankson, 1993):
Learning English as an L2 is often focused around syntax, morphology, vocabulary, and pragmatics. These areas may impact the communicative effectiveness and naturalness of speech. While accent modification services may primarily focus on sound system alterations, language interacts with phonology. For example, an individual may present with a lack of bound morphemes, such as a plural marker. This may be perceived as final consonant deletion or difficulty with consonant clusters.
Language proficiency may also impact goal setting and recommendations. Some clinicians feel that clients with lower language proficiency may benefit from focusing on other aspects of language before addressing pronunciation, whereas others may choose to take a broader approach and focus on overall language skills (McKinney, 2019).
Language sampling can be gathered from a variety of settings, including the workplace, and may include structured sentences, spontaneous conversation (Sikorski, 2005), or role-played scenarios (McKinney, 2019).
Pragmatic differences between languages may include variations in social norms, such as eye contact, proxemics, conversational balance, topic maintenance, and implicature (McKinney, 2019). Some of these differences may inadvertently communicate unintended messages and lead to miscommunications or difficulty conversing. For example, in a language where requests are posed more indirectly (e.g., “It’s cold in here,” as a way to request that someone close a window), the speaker’s request may not be understood by someone whose language typically uses more direct requests, whereas the more direct requests (e.g., “Close the window”) may be interpreted as impolite by someone who uses a language where indirect requests are the norm. Drawing awareness to these differences can help a speaker identify and correct communication breakdowns more effectively.
Individuals seeking accent modification services represent various unique cultural and linguistic backgrounds and experiences. Accent modification services should be provided in a manner that considers each individual’s unique needs and values. It is important to consider the societal context of accent modification services as well as the wide range of internal and external factors that lead individuals to seek these services. It is impossible to separate accent modification services from discrimination and bias that exist even when a client is seeking services of their own volition.
Accent modification services have been criticized for perpetuating the stigma and discrimination against speakers of different language varieties and encouraging assimilation to mainstream cultures rather than embracing diversity of language (Chakraborty et al., 2019; Yu, 2020). Ideally, societal changes would shift the burden from the accented individual by addressing existing biases, racism, and ethnocentrism against nonnative accents. However, there are individuals who view accent modification services as a tool to navigate a world where stigma and discrimination exist. It is ultimately the individual’s decision how they choose to address the unfortunate reality of language stigma and bias. The clinician prioritizes the client’s goals while providing education on realistic expectations for progress. However, client autonomy does not absolve the clinician from considering these issues and seeking out ways to reduce harm. On a broader level, it is important to educate and inform about the value of language diversity and combat myths that nonnative and regional accents negatively reflect on proficiency or competency.
Accent modification providers can focus on effective communication by enhancing intelligibility and naturalness while embracing the client’s accent. Apart from communication training, accent modification providers can
For additional information on providing culturally competent services, see ASHA's Practice Portal page on Cultural Responsiveness.
The goal of any accent modification program is improved communication. Although the field of accent modification is relatively young, evidence exists that supports its efficacy (Gu & Shah, 2019; Khurana & Huang, 2013; Lee et al., 2015; Saito, 2012). Accent modification treatment continues to evolve and explore different methods and approaches. The clinician should consider all of the assessment areas outlined above in order to provide the most comprehensive approach when developing a training program.
In accent modification, clinicians frequently use rating scales to measure accentedness, intelligibility, and comprehensibility, all of which are somewhat independent from one another (Derwing & Munro, 1997; Munro & Derwing, 1995). There is a general correlation between a higher degree of accentedness and lower intelligibility/comprehensibility. However, some speakers with higher ratings of accentedness may be as intelligible and/or comprehensible as someone with a lesser degree of accentedness (Franklin & Stoel-Gammon, 2014; Munro & Derwing, 1995). Other variables that affect intelligibility include characteristics of the speaker, characteristics of the listener, particular language pairings, language familiarity, use of particular phonemes, and the speech task (Bent & Bradlow, 2003; Bradlow & Bent, 2008; Levy & Law, 2010; Mahendra et al., 1999).
Goal setting is a collaborative process between the clinician and the individual. It is not realistic to expect that individuals will modify their accent to the extent that they sound like a native English speaker (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996; Granena & Long, 2013), nor is this necessary for effective communication. This expectation from the clinician may be potentially harmful. As McKinney (2019) summarized:
Some feel that a bias (often implicit) toward nativeness as the ultimate level of attainment is a form of linguistic imperialism. Nonnative speakers often face a great deal of bias and prejudice based on the way they speak, and by subtly implying that their accents in and of themselves are inferior, we become, at best, bystanders to this discrimination and, at worst, promoters of it. (p. 11)
Goals are typically centered around improving communication between the speaker and the listener and focus on targets that have the greatest impact on intelligibility and naturalness. Because services are elective, goals may be less formal than those written by SLPs treating disorders in health care and educational settings.
The focus of accent modification goals is often to improve intelligibility and communicative effectiveness by teaching the individual a combination of pronunciation, syntactic, and intonation skills. Other specific goals may be written that relate to confidence, ease, and spontaneity in communication.
A number of different accent modification training approaches or strategies are used in the field (see Bradlow et al., 1999; Celce-Muria et al., 1996; McKinney, 2019). In the studies mentioned, the following strategies were proposed:
In an ideal world, clients would not have to make modifications to educate and accommodate conversation partners. Practically speaking, however, clients may find it necessary to take specific approaches to educate others and to prepare themselves for potentially uncomfortable conversations. Approaches for counseling regarding the impact of speaking with an accent include the following:
While accent modification services have traditionally focused on speaker behaviors, listeners also impact the success of a communicative exchange. SLPs advocate for equitable treatment of accented speech in the community and educate conversational partners regarding strategies for communicating with nonnative speakers when appropriate. Listener training may be provided at the corporate level; for instance, if accent modification services are requested by a company for certain individuals, the SLP may also offer to provide listener training to the facility. Listener bias and beliefs about speaker characteristics impact their judgment of intelligibility and how successfully they feel the speaker is communicating (Kang & Rubin, 2009; Lindemann, 2002; Rubin, 1992; Rubin & Smith, 1990). Listeners may engage in behaviors that impede successful communication (Lindemann, 2002). Such listener behaviors might include
Thus, some clinicians have been focusing services on providing listener training in addition to speaker training. Such approaches as role-playing, longitudinal service learning (e.g., having high school students provide service in emergency homeless shelters for immigrants/asylum seekers), and shared verbal problem-solving tasks with nonnative speakers may be helpful approaches to reduce listener bias (Chakraborty et al., 2017; Kang et al., 2015).
Accent modification is an elective service. Because an accent is not a communication disorder, these services cannot be billed to insurance.
There are instances when an individual who seeks accent modification services also has a speech or language disorder. If an SLP is providing services, they must be certain to note the distinction and separate what types of services are being provided (i.e., elective services for accent modification vs. treatment for a communication disorder). The only services that can be billed to insurance are those provided to evaluate or treat a communication disorder and not those provided to treat a communication difference, such as a nonnative accent.
Principle I, Rule J of ASHA’s Code of Ethics states: “Individuals shall accurately represent the intended purpose of a service, product, or research endeavor and shall abide by established guidelines for clinical practice and the responsible conduct of research, including humane treatment of animals involved in research” (ASHA, 2023). Principle I, Rule K states: “Individuals who hold the Certificate of Clinical Competence shall evaluate the effectiveness of services provided, technology employed, and products dispensed, and they shall provide services or dispense products only when benefit can reasonably be expected” (ASHA, 2023). SLPs delivering accent modification services will want to carefully evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of services and accurately represent the goals and expectations of services.
Principle III, Rule B of ASHA’s Code of Ethics states: “Individuals shall avoid engaging in conflicts of interest whereby a personal, professional, financial, or other interest or relationship could influence their objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing professional responsibilities. If such conflicts of interest cannot be avoided, proper disclosure and management is required” (ASHA, 2023). SLPs will want to appropriately represent their skills and services when advertising and will want to provide services to only those individuals who may benefit from accent modification services. For more information on appropriate representation when marketing services to the public, see Issues in Ethics: Public Announcements and Public Statements (ASHA, 2018).
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals from employment discrimination on the basis of sex, color, national origin, and religion. Accent discrimination falls under the purview of discrimination based on national origin. According to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Section 6), “An employer may not base a decision on an employee’s foreign accent unless the accent materially interferes with job performance” (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2008, p. 1). Employers are not required to hire individuals whose communication materially interferes with satisfactory job performance. However, employers must show impartiality concerning different types of accents. For example, employers are not permitted to show a preference for French or German accents over Japanese or Spanish accents (Franklin, 2012).
It is not within the scope of the SLP to identify cases of accent discrimination. However, providers of accent modification services should be aware of this aspect of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and be willing to inform individuals of this provision, when appropriate.
Provider refers to the person offering the treatment. Accent modification services can be provided by SLPs, English as a Second Language instructors, voice and speech coaches, and other professionals.
Format refers to the structure of the training (e.g., group and/or individual). Accent modification can be delivered individually or in a small group.
Setting refers to the location of services (e.g., home, community-based, work). Services can be provided in an SLP’s office, in the individual’s home, or within the community to promote generalization.
Dosage refers to the frequency, intensity, and duration of service. Many accent modification programs may be intensive in nature. Dosage is determined on the basis of each individual’s specific needs.
This list of resources is not exhaustive, and the inclusion of any specific resource does not imply endorsement from ASHA.
The following articles offer a focus on various pronunciation training models:
Behrman, A. (2014). Segmental and prosodic approaches to accent management. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(4), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.1044/2014_AJSLP-13-0074
Blake, H., McLeod, S., & Verdon, S. (2019, November). Intelligibility enhancement assessment and intervention for multilingual university students [Conference session]. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Convention, Orlando, FL, United States.
Bradlow, A. R. (2008). Training non-native language sound patterns: Lessons from training Japanese adults on the English /ɹ/–/l/ contrast. In J. G. Hansen Edwards & M. L. Zampini (Eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (pp. 287–308). John Benjamins.
Bradlow, A. R., Akahane-Yamada, R., Pisoni, D. B., & Tohkura, Y. (1999). Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: Long-term retention of learning in perception and production. Perception & Psychophysics, 61, 977–985. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206911
Brady, K. W., Duewer, N., & King, A. M. (2016). The effectiveness of a multimodal vowel-targeted intervention in accent modification. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 43, 23–34. [PDF]
Carlson, H. K., & McHenry, M. A. (2006). Effect of accent and dialect on employability. Journal of Employment Counseling, 43(2), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1920.2006.tb00008.x
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2009). Second language accent and pronunciation teaching: A research-based approach. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 379–397. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588486
Hahn, L. (2004). Primary stress and intelligibility: Research to motivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL Quarterly, 38(2), 201–223. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588378
Hashemian, M., & Fadaei, B. (2011). A comparative study of intuitive-imitative and analytic-linguistic approaches towards teaching English vowels to L2 learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(5), 969–976. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.5.969-976
McLeod, S. (Ed.). (2007). The international guide to speech acquisition. Thomson Delmar Learning.
Morley, J. (1996). Second language speech/pronunciation: Acquisition, instructions, standards, variation, and accent. In J. E. Alatis, C. A. Straelhle, M. Ronkin, & B. Gallenberger (Eds.), Current trends and future prospects (pp. 140–160). Georgetown University Press.
Schmidt, A. M. (1997). Working with adult foreign accent: Strategies for intervention. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 24(Spring), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1044/cicsd_24_S_47 [PDF]
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2015). Issues in ethics: Public announcements and public statements. www.asha.org/Practice/ethics/Public-Announcements-and-Public-Statements/
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2016). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology [Scope of practice]. www.asha.org/policy/
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2023). Code of ethics [Ethics]. www.asha.org/policy/
Behrman, A. (2014). Segmental and prosodic approaches to accent management. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(4), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.1044/2014_AJSLP-13-0074
Behrman, A., & Akhund, A. (2013). The influence of semantic context on the perception of Spanish-accented American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(5), 1567–1578. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0192)
Bent, T., & Bradlow, A. R. (2003). The interlanguage speech intelligibility benefit. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 114(3), 1600–1610. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1603234
Bernthal, J. E., & Bankson, N. W. (1993). Articulation and phonological disorders (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
Blake, H. L., Verdon, S., & McLeod, S. (2019). Exploring multilingual speakers’ perspectives on their intelligibility in English. Speech, Language and Hearing, 24(3), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/2050571X.2019.1585681
Bradlow, A. R., Akahane-Yamada, R., Pisoni, D. B., & Tohkura, Y. (1999). Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: Long-term retention of learning in perception and production. Perception & Psychophysics, 61(5), 977–985. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206911
Bradlow, A. R., & Bent, T. (2008). Perceptual adaptation to non-native speech. Cognition, 106(2), 707–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.04.005
Brady, K. W., Duewer, N., & King, A. M. (2016). The effectiveness of a multimodal vowel-targeted intervention in accent modification. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 43, 23–34.
Carlson, H. K., & McHenry, M. A. (2006). Effect of accent and dialect on employability. Journal of Employment Counseling, 43(2), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1920.2006.tb00008.x
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Goodwin, J. M. (1996). Teaching pronunciation: A reference for teachers of English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge University Press.
Chakraborty, R., Schwarz, A. L., & Chakraborty, P. (2017). Perception of nonnative accent: A cross-sectional perspective pilot survey. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 5(2), 26–36.
Chakraborty, R., Schwarz, A. L., & Vaughan, P. (2019). Speech-language pathologists’ perceptions of nonnative accent: A pilot study. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 4(6), 1601–1611. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_PERS-SIG17-2019-0030
Civil Rights Act of 1964, § 6, 42 U.S.C. § 2000d.
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (1997). Accent, intelligibility, and comprehensibility: Evidence from four L1s. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001010
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2009). Putting accent in its place: Rethinking obstacles to communication. Language Teaching, 42(4), 276–490. https://doi.org/10.1017/S026144480800551X
Derwing, T. M., & Munro, M. J. (2015). Pronunciation fundamentals: Evidence-based perspectives for L2 teaching and research. John Benjamins.
Franklin, A. D. (2012). Acquisition of a phonological system in adulthood. In B. V. Peter & A. MacLeod (Eds.), Comprehensive perspectives on child speech development and disorders (pp. 225–246). Nova Science Publishers.
Franklin, A. D., & Stoel-Gammon, C. (2014). Using multiple measures to document change in English vowels produced by Japanese, Korean, and Spanish speakers: The case for goodness and intelligibility. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(4), 625–640. https://doi.org/10.1044/2014_AJSLP-13-0144
Fuertes, J. N., Gottdiener, W. H., Martin, H., Gilbert, T. C., & Giles, H. (2012). A meta-analysis of the effects of speakers’ accents on interpersonal evaluations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42(1), 120–133. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.862
Granena, G., & Long, M. H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29(3), 311–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312461497
Gu, Y., & Shah, A. (2019). A systematic review of interventions to address accent-related communication problems in healthcare. Ochsner Journal, 19(4), 378–396. https://doi.org/10.31486/toj.19.0028
Hahn, L. (2004). Primary stress and intelligibility: Research to motivate the teaching of suprasegmentals. TESOL Quarterly, 38(2), 201–223. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588378
Kang, O., & Rubin, D. L. (2009). Reverse linguistic stereotyping: Measuring the effect of listener expectations on speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 28(4), 441–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X09341950
Kang, O., Rubin, D., & Lindemann, S. (2015). Mitigating U.S. undergraduates’ attitudes toward international teaching assistants. TESOL Quarterly, 49(4), 681–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.192
Levy, E. S., & Law, F. F. (2010). Production of French vowels by American-English learners of French: Language experience, consonantal context, and the perception–production relationship. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 128(3), 1290–1305. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3466879
Lindemann, S. (2002). Listening with an attitude: A model of native-speaker comprehension of non-native speakers in the United States. Language in Society, 31(3), 419–441. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404502020286
Mahendra, N., Bayles, K., & Tomoeda, C. (1999). Effect of an unfamiliar accent on the repetition ability of normal elders and individuals with Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, 7(3), 223–230.
McKinney, R. (2019). Here’s how to do accent modification: A manual for speech-language pathologists. Plural.
Morley, J. (1996). Second language speech/pronunciation: Acquisition, instructions, standards, variation, and accent. In J. E. Alatis, C. A. Straelhle, M. Ronkin, & B. Gallenberger (Eds.), Current trends and future prospects (pp. 140–160). Georgetown University Press.
Moyer, A. (1999). Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(1), 81–108. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263199001035
Munro, M. J., & Derwing, T. M. (1995). Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility in the speech of second language learners. Language Learning, 45(1), 73–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00963.x
Rubin, D. L. (1992). Nonlanguage factors affecting undergraduates’ judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. Research in Higher Education, 33(4), 511–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00973770
Rubin, D. L., & Smith, K. A. (1990). Effects of accent, ethnicity, and lecture topic on undergraduates’ perceptions of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14(3), 337–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(90)90019-S
Saito, K. (2012). Effects of instruction on L2 pronunciation development: A synthesis of 15 quasi-experimental intervention studies. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 842–854. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43267893
Schmidt, A. M. (1997, Spring). Working with adult foreign accent: Strategies for intervention. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 24, 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1044/cicsd_24_S_47 [PDF]
Sikorski, L. D. (2005). Regional accents: A rationale for intervening and competencies required. Seminars in Speech and Language, 26(2), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-871207
Trofimovich, P., & Baker, W. (2006). Learning second language suprasegmentals: Effect of L2 experience on prosody and fluency characteristics of L2 speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263106060013
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2008). Facts about national origin discrimination. https://www.eeoc.gov/facts/fs-nator.html
Valles, B., Jr. (2015). The impact of accented English on speech comprehension (Publication No. 3708574) [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas at El Paso]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses—Gradworks. https://scholarworks.utep.edu/dissertations/AAI3708574/
Yu, B. (2020, December). Does accent modification do more harm than good? [Webinar]. Asian Pacific Islander Speech-Language-Hearing Caucus Speaker Series. YouTube. https://youtu.be/3W3NN42H2YI
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American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Accent modification [Practice portal]. Retrieved month day, year, from www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Professional-Issues/Accent-Modification/
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